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Publication Cultivating Collaboration through Joint Participation: Evidence from a Video-Based Nutrition-Sensitive Agricultural Extension Program in Ethiopia(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-07-16) Friedson-Ridenour, Sophia; Pierotti, Rachael; Springer, Emily; Gebreyohannes, AlemgenaMicronutrient deficiency, or hidden hunger, remains a significant problem affecting more than 2 billion people globally. Consuming a diet that is diverse in agricultural products is a primary way of decreasing hidden hunger. Nutrition-sensitive agriculture is recommended as a means of ensuring that investments in agriculture also translate into nutritional gains. Nutrition-sensitive agriculture is a multisectoral approach that requires coordination and cooperation across what are often gendered domains of control inside and outside the home. Agriculture is usually treated as men’s domain and nutrition women’s, with programming generally targeting recipients based on their assumed domain of control. Using evidence from a study of a video-based nutrition-sensitive agriculture program in Ethiopia, this paper provides an in-depth qualitative examination of why targeting both men and women with information on nutrition-sensitive agriculture is preferred by both female and male farmers. The findings indicate that the participation of men and women within the same household not only reduces inequalities in access to information, but also changes whether and how conversations about household production and consumption happen. Household investments in nutrition-sensitive agriculture often involve risk-taking and may require the labor of both men and women. Nutrition-sensitive agriculture interventions that provide information to both women and men ease information-sharing frictions, including those related to intrahousehold gender inequality, and encourage consensus building and the joint assessment of potential benefits and risks. The findings from this study indicate that dual targeting is important for promoting nutrition-sensitive agriculture and addressing hidden hunger because of the potential benefits related to intrahousehold collaboration.Publication The Impact of Submarine Cables on Internet Access Price, and the Role of Competition and Regulation(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-07-16) Cariolle, Joël; Houngbonon, Georges Vivien; Silue, Tarna; Strusani, DavideSubmarine cables enable international connectivity and are essential for high-speed internet access. This paper tests their potential to improve the affordability of internet access by supporting a price drop through cost savings or increased competition intensity. The empirical framework relies on a dataset that combines the capacity of submarine cables with price data on fixed and mobile internet across 150 countries over a decade. Using a two-way fixed effects estimator, the analysis finds that the expansion of submarine cables is associated with a statistically significant drop in the price of internet access, up to 14–21 percent, depending on the technology, for every doubling of the capacity of submarine cables, and with large regional disparities. These effects stem from cost savings in the short run and tend to decline over time, concomitant with a rise in domestic telecom market concentration. The analysis also finds that these effects can be enhanced by telecom regulations, especially de-jure independence of the regulator, and the regulation of network interconnection and access, shared telecom infrastructure, and competition from international players across the broadband value chain. The main findings are robust to alternative estimation strategies, including an instrumental variable and a staggered difference in differences.Publication Fertilizer Price Shocks in Smallholder Agriculture: Cross-Country Evidence from High-Frequency Phone Surveys in Sub-Saharan Africa(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-07-16) Amankwah, Akuffo; Ambel, Alemayehu; Gourlay, Sydney; Kilic, Talip; Markhof, Yannick; Wollburg, PhilipSince 2020, many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa have experienced disruptions to agricultural activities due to the adverse effects of multiple global crises. Notably, the Russian invasion of Ukraine caused a surge in inorganic fertilizer prices, which had potentially significant impacts on Sub-Saharan Africa’s agriculture sector given that most countries in the region are net importers of inorganic fertilizers and the Russian Federation is the world’s largest exporter. Using high-frequency longitudinal phone survey data spanning four years from six Sub-Saharan African countries, this paper examines the dynamics of smallholder agriculture against the backdrop of these crises, with particular focus on prices, availability, and use of inorganic fertilizer, as well as the strategies employed by farmers to cope with high fertilizer prices and other accessibility constraints. The results show that inorganic fertilizer prices have increased in the region since 2020, forcing smallholder farmers to adopt coping mechanisms that are less productivity-enhancing, making them even more susceptible to future crises. Specifically, farming households reduced the quantity of inorganic fertilizer applied, by applying it at lower rates or to a smaller area. In some cases, households sold assets or borrowed money to cope with the high prices of inorganic fertilizers. This calls for policies to help smallholder farmers in the region to build strong support systems to be more resilient and better able to cope with the adverse effects of rising inorganic fertilizer prices during polycrises and related shocks.Publication Balochistan Renewable Energy Development Study(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-07-16) World BankThe Balochistan Renewable Energy Development Study is a continuation of the World Bank's previous works on analyzing Pakistan’s variable renewable energy (VRE) potential, mainly the VRE locational study report, which was published in 2021. This study crystallizes the previous results, going into greater depth using the latest data and information for the province of Balochistan where the RE potential is greater and at the lowest cost than in any other province, offering the potential to transform the province into a net exporter of energy within the country, and thereby facilitate its economic and social development. The objective of this study is to generate interest in and political commitment to the strategic development of utility-scale solar and wind power in Balochistan to help meet Pakistan’s ambitious RE targets for the power sector and support the broader transition necessary to achieve “affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all.” This study is intended to support federal and provincial policy development, investment planning, and project concept preparation. VRE could drastically reduce the burden on Pakistan’s economy imposed by the high cost of importing fuels - oil, gas, or coal, and in Balochistan, the VRE costs are the least in Pakistan.Publication A Metric of Global Maritime Supply Chain Disruptions: The Global Supply Chain Stress Index (GSCSI)(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-07-16) Arvis, Jean-François; Rastogi, Cordula; Rodrigue, Jean-Paul; Ulybina, DariaGlobal supply chains recently faced widespread disruptions. The COVID-19 pandemic caused major disruptions in 2021 and 2022, while in late 2023, geopolitical incidents in the Red Sea and water shortages in the Panama Canal disrupted global shipping routes. Regardless of the cause, delays, or rerouting mean that disruption diffuses at a global scale. To quantify and assess the magnitude of disruptions globally or locally, in 2021, the World Bank developed a proposed metric, the Global Supply Chain Stress Index. The index derives from Automatic Identification System tracking data. It calculates the equivalent stalled ship capacity measured in twenty-foot equivalent units), providing data at the port, country, regional, and global levels. This granular information can inform targeted interventions and contingency planning, improving the resilience of maritime infrastructure and networks. The index explains the observed surges in shipping rates during disruptions, assuming shippers’ willingness to pay for scarcer shipping slots. An increase of 1 million twenty-foot equivalent units in global stress pushes the Shanghai Containerized Freight Index up by US$2,300 per twenty-foot equivalent unit.Publication Learning Loss as a Result of COVID-19: Evidence from a Longitudinal Survey in Malawi(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-07-16) Asim, Salman; Bashir, Sajitha; Gera, Ravinder CasleySchool closures from COVID-19 have resulted in large learning losses, from 0.05 to 0.17 standard deviations in high income countries, equivalent to two to six months of lost learning. However, the extent of primary-level learning loss in low-income countries remains unclear, studies lack information on individual students’ learning trajectories, and most do not include students who dropped out. This paper uses representative survey data from Malawi that includes unique longitudinal data on individual students (grade 4 at baseline), including those who dropped out, at three points in time: pre-COVID; 1–12 months before the seven-month school closures; and 14–20 months after schools reopened. Across math, English, and Chichewa, the local language, the average learning loss amounts to 18 months (78 points, 0.78 standard deviations), significantly higher than the loss documented in high income contexts. Decomposing this loss, the findings show that students lost 0.25 standard deviations of existing knowledge during the closure, and a further 0.23 standard deviations in foregone learning compared to the expected trajectory had schools remained open. Further loss comes from a slowdown in learning after schools reopened, with students gaining 7 points’ less new knowledge in math per 100 days, the majority of which is not explained by increased dropout. Our findings are relevant for other low-income and lower-middle income contexts: remote learning during school closure was in general ineffectual, necessitating urgent action to remediate lost learning; and children who dropped out had the highest learning losses and now require out-of-school learning opportunities.Publication Can Targeted Allocation of Teachers Improve Student Learning Outcomes? Evidence from Malawi(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-07-16) Asim, Salman; Gera, Ravinder Casley; Moreno, Martin; Wong, KerryTeachers are one of the most important inputs for learning, but in many low-income countries they are poorly distributed between schools. This paper discusses the case of Malawi, which has introduced new evidence-based policies and procedures to improve the equity and efficiency of the allocation of teachers to schools. The analysis finds that adherence to these policies has been highly variable between the country’s districts, with the most successful deploying 75 percent of teachers according to the rules and the least successful just 22 percent. Using administrative data, the paper identifies the impacts on student repetition rates of reductions in pupil–qualified teacher ratios as a result of the new teachers. The findings show that schools that moved from having more than 90 pupils per qualified teacher to a lower ratio experienced reductions in lower primary school repetition rates of 2–3 percentage points. However, similar impacts on dropout are not observed.Publication Investing in People and Enhancing Innovation and Growth through Education in Europe and Central Asia(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-07-16) World BankIn light of the emerging mega-trends and intricate challenges facing the Europe and Central Asia (ECA) region, this note presents a review of how neglecting to have a continued focus on education in ECA region can lead to a negative impact on innovation and growth. It presents a strategic realignment of the education sector interventions in the region. At the heart of this report lies the recognition of education as a transformative power given its pivotalrole in shaping the future in ECA, paving the way for sustainable growth and development. The intended audience is World Bank internal stakeholders in ECA, specifically the country management teams, to help stimulate and facilitate the dialogue between the World Bank and its clients in ECA. At the same time, the report also targets a diverse audience, including policymakers, education practitioners, and researchers invested in the advancement of education in ECA.Publication Development Reversed: Poverty and Labor Markets in Myanmar(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-07-15) Sinha Roy, Sutirtha; Van Der Weide, RoyThe combined impacts of multiple negative shocks, including the Covid-19 pandemic and the February 2021 military coup, have brought poverty headcount, depth, and severity in Myanmar back to levels last seen in 2015. Poverty estimation exercises based on unofficial household survey data involve statistical uncertainties. However, trends in household well-being indicators studied in this report robustly point to a rise in poverty between 2017 and 2023. These trends underscore significant reversals from Myanmar’s experience of sustained poverty reduction until 2020, which was driven by fast economic growth and an expansion of its manufacturing and services sectors. While poverty has risen compared to the last six years and remains highest in rural areas, it has surged particularly rapidly in urban areas and among individuals with higher human capital endowments. The decline in living standards among urban households - especially those that belong to lower and middle-income families - has likely contributed to a reduction in inequality. Poverty estimates in this report are lower than other recently available estimates for Myanmar, largely due to methodological differences and the statistical uncertainties associated with such exercises. In urban areas, poverty has risen between 2017 and 2023, with a substantial decline in consumption among urban lower and middle-income households. The remaining report proceeds as follows: Chapter 1 provides the headline estimates of Myanmar’s poverty by location and household characteristics. Chapter 2 uses a labor market lens to understand the emerging trends in poverty. Technical details related to the updated methodology can be found in the Appendix 1. Appendix 2 provides key estimates of labor market indicators from MSPS at the subnational level.Publication A Development Approach to Advancing Gender Engagement and Addressing Gender Inequalities in Fragile, Conflict, and Violent Situations(Washington, DC: World Bank, 2024-07-15) World BankFragility, Conflict, and Violence (FCV) affects women, men, girls, and boys differently. FCV tends to exacerbate gender disparities in education, health, economic participation, voice, and agency. The number of people living in FCV settings is at a record high due to ongoing and new conflicts. FCV countries make up the ten worst-performing countries on several indicators that are critical for gender equality, including maternal mortality, school enrollment, and reproductive health care. There are several existing processes and instruments that task teams can draw on to maximize gender outcomes in FCV contexts. The objective of this approach paper is to identify practices and approaches in the design, implementation, monitoring, and measuring of interventions and operations that respond to the differentiated needs of women, girls, men, and boys, and contribute towards addressing gender inequalities in FCV countries. The approach paper features selected operational highlights showcasing regional experiences, lessons learned, and best practices on addressing gender inequalities in FCV settings. Additionally, it includes an action plan outlining steps to elevate gender issues and responses beyond individual projects to more strategic country engagements.
